Diet

Native American

• Staple Foods:
  • Corn, beans, squash (“Three Sisters”), fish, game meat, nuts, berries, and wild plants
• Beverages: Herbal teas and water

European

• Staple Foods:
  • Bread (wheat, rye, or barley), salted pork, corn, beans, squash, and game meat.
• Beverages:
  • Cider, weak beer, and occasionally tea or coffee for wealthier settlers

Enslaved Africans

• Staple Foods:
  • Rations often included cornmeal, salted meat, and leftover scraps.

Let’s Chat About Water

You know that thing that most of us give very little thought about, but completely rely on. I had read that water was unsafe for colonist to drink, and I was confused… why was the water safe to drink for Native Americans but unsafe for European colonists? Turns out Native Americans knew their environment, had solid water practices, and avoided major contamination, making their water way safer to drink. Meanwhile, the European settlers rolled in, messed up ecosystems, introduced pollutants, and didn’t have a clue about keeping water clean, making it unsafe for themselves.

Here is a more broken down explanation:

1. Adaptation and Immunity
   • Long Term Exposure: Native Americans had lived in their environments for thousands of years and had developed resistance to the specific microbes and parasites in their local water sources.
   • Localized Knowledge: They knew which water source were clean and which to avoid, based on generations of observation and experience.
2. Water Management Practices
   • Selection of Water Sources: Native Americans often relied on running water from streams, springs, and rivers, which was less likely to harbor harmful bacteria compared to stagnant water.
   • Seasonal Adjustments: They avoided using water sources during seasons when contamination from animals or decaying plant material was higher.
   • Boiling and Cooking: Many Native American cultures boiled water regularly for cooking, which naturally killed pathogens.
3. Environmental Impact of Settlers
   • Settler Practices: European settlers frequently contaminated water sources by setting up settlements near stagnant ponds, deforesting land, and introducing livestock whose waste polluted water supplies.
   • Urbanization: As settlements grew, waste disposal became an issues. European colonists often dumped waste into rivers or near wells, causing contamination.
   • Lack of Sanitation: Colonists lacked the understanding of how diseases spread through contaminated water, leading to outbreaks of dysentery, cholera, and typhoid.
4. Cultural Differences
   • European Reliance on Beer and Cider: Europeans were accustomed to drinking weak beer or cider instead of water, as water in many parts of Europe was unsafe due to poor sanitation. This made them less familiar with ensuring water purity in the New World.
   • Hygiene Practices: Native Americans often bathed regularly and understood the importance of clean water for health, while colonists did not always prioritize hygiene.
5. Introduction of Foreign Pathogens
   • Diseases from Europe: European settlers introduced diseases and pathogens that could contaminate water sources, including those carried by livestock and human waste.
   • Cross-Contamination: Settler practices, like using shared water sources for drinking and waste disposal, introduced new pathogens that Native American water sources had not previously contained.

So after this deep dive I had even more questions. If people were just drinking beer and cider cause water was “poison”…. What were the children drinking? Turns out just about same thing! Colonist children drank a handful of beverages:

• Small Beer (or “Table Beer”)
  • A very weak beer with 2% alcohol or less
• Cider
  • Popular in colonial America, especially in New England, as apples grew easily and cider was safer than water. It was often diluted for children.
    • Yes you read that right… they watered down that alcohol to make it safer since… water was unsafe…. What???? They often boiled water first to kill of anything nasty before mixing it with cider (I mean coulda just stopped at the boiling water part, but what do I know). There was also “ciderkin,” a super weak, almost vinegary version of that was low in alcohol and safe for kids. Sounds a tad like modern day kombucha and I know few children who dig that soooo kids way back in the day must’ve been built different.
    • I also wondered about just apple juice… and found that wasn’t really a thing. If families had freshly pressed apples they might let children drink the juice right away, but since it started to ferment within a day or two. Fermented cider was the practical go-to for both adults and kids.
• Buttermilk
  • As milk spoiled quickly, it was frequently quickly turned into butter and cheese, and this was a common byproduct of this.
• Milk

I then got to thinking about those children who grew up having alcohol at such a young age, where modern societies now so very much against children consuming any form of alcohol. So how were their little brains not affected?

Chronic alcohol consumption—especially from a young age—can negatively impact cognitive development, but the situation for colonial children drinking small beer was different from what we might expect today. Here’s why it likely didn’t significantly affect IQ in the way modern alcohol abuse might:

1. Very Low Alcohol Content

• The “beer” given to children, called small beer or small ale, had very low alcohol content—usually between 0.5% and 2% (comparable to modern kombucha or non-alcoholic beer).
• This level of alcohol wasn’t high enough to cause intoxication and was mainly consumed because the brewing process killed harmful bacteria in the water.

2. Nutritional Benefits

• Small beer provided calories, carbohydrates, and essential nutrients (like B vitamins and iron from the grains used in brewing), which could actually help in preventing malnutrition—something common in early colonial life.
• Given the physically demanding lifestyle of early colonists, small beer was often seen as a safe and nourishing beverage.

3. Cognitive Development in Colonial Times

• Malnutrition, disease, and harsh living conditions posed a far greater risk to cognitive development than the small amounts of alcohol in beer.
• Education and intellectual development were also limited by other factors, such as access to schooling, rather than any mild alcohol consumption.

4. Modern Understanding vs. Historical Reality

• Today, we know that alcohol exposure during pregnancy or in high doses during early childhood can negatively affect brain development (as seen in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders).
• However, there’s no clear historical evidence suggesting that colonial-era small beer consumption significantly impacted cognitive development or IQ levels in children.

What Likely Had a Bigger Impact on Cognitive Development?

• Malnutrition: A lack of essential nutrients had a much stronger effect on brain development.
• Disease: Illnesses like smallpox, measles, and malarial fevers could cause cognitive delays or brain damage.
• Limited Education: Access to schooling was rare for many children outside of religious communities.

In short, while it’s possible that regular exposure to alcohol—even in small amounts—had some minor cognitive effects, the much larger threats to brain development in colonial times were malnutrition, disease, and lack of educational resources.

Clothing

Native American

• Materials: Animal hides, fur, woven plant fibers.
• Styles: Distinct tribal designs, often reflecting their environment and culture.
• Adoption of European Goods: Some tribes began incorporating wool blankets, metal tools, and beads into their clothing.

European

• Materials: Wool, linen, and leather, and homespun fabrics
• Men’s Clothing: Breeches, waistcoats, linen shirts, and heavy cloaks.
• Women’s Clothing: Dresses with layered petticoats, aprons, and bonnets or coifs.
• Shoes: Often handmade and sturdy, but many colonists went without due to cost.
• Native American Influence: Some colonists adopted buckskin or moccasins for practicality.

Enslaved Africans

• Materials: Provided minimal and coarse clothing, often made from leftover fabrics.
• Seasonal Challenges: Inadequate for cold winters.

Housing

Native American

• Structures: Wigwams, longhouses, or tipis, depending on the region.
• Adaptation: Structures were well-suited to their environment, portable or permanent as needed.

European

• Structures:
  • Small wooden homes with thatched roofs and dirt floors.
  • Stone chimneys for heating and cooking.
  • One or two-room designs with minimal furniture.
• Native Influence: Some colonists adapted elements of Native American housing, like wigwams or longhouses, for temporary shelters.

Enslaved Africans

• Structures: Small, poorly insulated shacks near plantations.
• Conditions: Overcrowded and unsanitary.

Health Outlook

Native American

• Life expectancy was significantly reduced due to epidemics, but was between 35-50 years depending on region.

European

• Life Expectancy:
  • If a colonist survived childhood, they could expect to live into their 40s or 50s.
  • Some lived into their 60s, though this was rare.
• Child Survival Rates:
  • Only about 50% of children survived to adulthood due to high infant and childhood mortality from disease, malnutrition, and accidents.
• Healthcare:
  • Herbal remedies were common.
  • Bloodletting and rudimentary surgeries were performed by barber-surgeons.
  • Midwives handled childbirth.

Africans

• Enslaved: The life expectancy was often around 20-30 years. Many did not survive beyond their first few years after arrival due to harsh labor, diseases, abuse, and lack of medical care.
• Free Africans: A very small population at the time, life expectancy was slightly higher but still significantly lower than that of European colonists due to systemic racism, poverty, and limited access to resources.

Social Structures

1. Colonial Society:
   • Hierarchical and patriarchal; wealth and land ownership determined status.
   • Monogamous marriages; women married around 16-20, men around 20-25.
   • 4-8 children per family was common, but infant mortality was high.
2. Native Societies:
   • Tribes were organized into complex kinship networks.
   • Governance varied, often democratic or council-based.
   • Many tribes had matrilineal societies (property passed through the mother).
   • Some practiced polygamy, while others were monogamous.
   • Women often married young (14-18).
3. Enslaved Africans:
   • Community Bonds: Developed close-knit communities to cope with their conditions.

Leisure and Games

• Colonists:
  • Card games, dice games, storytelling, music
  • Ninepins (early bowling), horseshoes, archery
  • Children played with wooden dolls, hoops, and marbles
• Native Americans:
  • Lacrosse (major team sport)
  • Dice games, storytelling, music and dancing
  • Running and endurance competitions
• Africans
  • Drumming, singing, and rhythmic dancing
  • Oral storytelling
  • Mancala (a strategy game using stones, seeds, or shells)

Economy, Currency, and Bartering

• Colonists:
  • Bartering was common, but some used wampum (shell beads), tobacco, or English coins as currency.
  • Major barter items: Furs, tobacco, tools, cloth, guns, and food.
• Native Americans:
  • Extensive trade networks existed. Wampum, animal pelts, and dried foods were common trade goods.
• Africans
  • Personal goods, handmade crafts, or food items among themselves or with poor colonists, exchanging items like tobacco, extra food rations, or small handmade tools. In some cases, they traded with Native Americans or lower-class Europeans for small luxuries or necessities.

Religion and Faith

• Colonists:
  • New England: Puritan (strict religious laws)
  • Chesapeake: Anglican (Church of England)
  • Pennsylvania: Quaker settlements
  • Religious gatherings, sermons, and Bible readings were central to life.
• Native Americans:
  • Varied spiritual beliefs, often animistic (spirits in nature).
  • Shamans or medicine men played an important role.
• African
  • Christianity blended with African spiritual practices, forming the foundation of resilience.

Language and Writing

• Colonists: Primarily English, though Dutch and German were also spoken in some settlements.
• Native Americans: Hundreds of languages, but no widespread written script
• African: Enslaved Africans blended their native languages with European ones, creating Creole languages like early Gullah
• Literacy Rate: Very low, especially in rural areas.

Art and Music

• Colonists:
  • Religious hymns, folk music, and storytelling.
  • Wood carvings, embroidery, and hand-painted signs.
• Native Americans:
  • Pottery, beadwork, and quillwork.
  • Drumming, flutes, and rattles used in ceremonies.
• African
  • woven baskets, carvings, pottery, and beadwork
  • Music was central to community and resilience, featuring drumming, call-and-response singing, spirituals, and rhythmic clapping

Musical Instruments

In 1650, music in what is now the United States varied depending on the cultural group—Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans each brought distinct traditions and instruments. Here’s a breakdown:

Native American Instruments:

• Drums: Central to ceremonies, dances, and spiritual rituals. Different tribes had unique drum styles, often made from hollowed logs and animal hides.
• Flutes: Typically made from wood or bone, used for storytelling, courtship, and meditation.
• Rattles: Crafted from gourds, animal shells, or carved wood, used in ceremonial dances and rituals.

European Instruments (Mainly English, Dutch, and Spanish Settlers):

• Fiddles (Violins): Popular for dances and social gatherings.
• Lutes and Guitars: Played for entertainment and religious hymns.
• Psaltery and Harpsichords: Found among wealthier settlers, used for formal occasions and religious music.
• Flutes and Recorders: Played in both secular and religious contexts.

African Instruments:

• Banjar (early form of the banjo): Originating from West Africa, used for storytelling and entertainment.
• Drums: Vital for communication, rituals, and community gatherings.
• Shekeres: Percussion instruments made from dried gourds wrapped in beads or shells.

Major Tools Available

• Colonists:
  • Blacksmithing tools, saws, plows, spinning wheels
  • Muskets, axes, scythes
  • Printing presses (for religious texts and pamphlets)
• Native Americans:
  • Flint tools, bows and arrows, stone axes
  • Dugout canoes
• African
  • Hoes, sickles, plows, and shovels for plantation labor
  • Many skilled Africans worked as blacksmiths, carpenters, and potters, using tools such as hammers, chisels, knives, and anvils 

European Exploration and Settlement

• English Colonists:
  • Concentrated in New England, the Chesapeake Bay, and the Carolinas.
  • Focused on farming, fishing, and trade.
• Dutch Colonists:
  • Controlled New Netherland (modern New York) and emphasized trade and shipping
• French Colonists:
  • Along the Mississippi River, focusing on fur trade
• Spanish Colonists:
  • Established settlements in Florida, the Southwest, and California.